Effective Syllabi: Best Practices

Adapted from: Slattery, J. M. and Carlson, J. F.(2005).Preparing an effective
syllabus: current best practices. College Teaching, 53, pp. 159-165.

Syllabi are important tools for organizing, conducting and evaluating a course.  Students benefit from well-constructed syllabi—they understand what the course is about, why it is constructed as it is, what the course offers them and what their roles and responsibilities are in order to successfully and (we hope) enjoyably complete the course.

Below we offer some quick ideas for developing your syllabus. We’ve abstracted ideas from Slattery and Carlson’s essay on best practices for quick reference.  If you wish to read more about any topic, click on the section title and you’ll go to Slattery and Carlson’s complete discussion of the topic.

3 Functions of Syllabi

Motivation:  a warm tone and inclusive, accessible writing motivate students to engage with the course; positive presuppositions expressed about students facilitates in them a positive self-fulfilling prophecy. [click here for extended discussion]

Structure: a clear map of topics and related assignments and due dates facilitates proper student planning. Writing a clear syllabus helps us, as faculty, grasp the plan and purpose of the course deeply. [click here for extended discussion]

  Evidence: in case of disputes regarding the course, the syllabus is often used by administrators or mediators to resolve them; in tenure and promotion cycles, syllabi are important documents as evidence of currency, innovation and mastery of course material; students need well-designed syllabi to facilitate transfer of credits between departments or institutions. [click here for  extended discussion]

9 Parts of a Syllabus

Contact information: office location and office hours (If you use VLEs—virtual learning environments such as WebCT or Blackboard, you may consider a mix of face to face and online office hours.); e-mail addresses and web pages; phone and fax numbers  [click here for extended discussion] 

Course description: catalog description; notes about your particular take on the course that make it different from other sections; good idea to include prerequisites, too. [click here for  extended discussion]

Rationale: tied to motivation, a rationale provides some inspiration for taking the course; explain why you are excited by the content and the value it provides in your life; explain its value in professional development; outline  the big ideas that make a difference for their learning. [click here for  extended discussion]

Course goals: articulate main learning goals for students; doing this helps us get clarity on our real goals for the course.  (Consider using Angelo and Cross’ Teaching Goals Inventory to align learning goal with purposes of the course; write goals using action verbs describing student  knowledge, behaviors, attitudes at the end of the course. [click here for extended discussion]

Ways to Meet Course Goals: describes faculty expectations for successfully completing readings, assignments, and evaluations.  Describe, at least generally, what major assignments entail. Suggest techniques for effective study. Consider including advice from students in previous sections. [click here for extended discussion]

Grading: note the relative weights of grades and the scales or methods to be used to calculate final grades; “idiosyncratic” merit more description and clarity of grading criteria or rubric. [click here for extended discussion]

Schedule: tied to the function of structure, the schedule helps students plan their work; include reading assignments, due dates, notations of special days (field trips, moves to different facilities such as labs or theaters; location of unique readings on reserve, online etc.); some organizational tags noting the segments or units of the course helps keep the conceptual organization of the course before the students. [click here for extended discussion]

Motivational Messages: discussion of what students can expect of you; what you think makes for an intellectual, scholarly or professional community. [click here for extended discussion]

University Support Services: make information clear and accessible for tutorial services, counseling center, services for disabled students, career services, and writing center. [click here for extended discussion]

The order of these topics follows a logic common to most syllabi.

References




Motivation
Students usually receive the course syllabus at the first class meeting.
Both the syllabus and discussion of the syllabus and course help set the
tone for the class (Appleby 1999; Littlefield 1999a; Office of Teaching
Effectiveness and Faculty Development 1999). In introducing the
syllabus, we must counter ingrained beliefs "that [students] are
powerless to affect what happens to them; that hard work will not pay
off; that success is due to luck, and failure is due to circumstances
beyond their control" (Walvoord and Anderson 1998, 16).

Syllabi differ widely in the tone they adopt: warm and friendly, formal,
condescending, or confrontational. Warm syllabi explain expectations in
a clear and friendly fashion, encourage and motivate students, and
anticipate positive student outcomes, rather than merely attempting to
prevent problems.
They are associated with positive student outcomes. Littlefield (1999a)
reported that people reading a syllabus as though they were students
remembered the information on warm syllabi better than that on less
student-friendly syllabi. Presumably this is because students see
themselves as active participants rather than passive recipients in the
learning process when reading warm syllabi and believe that their
behavior will impact the course and their grades. Students who read less
friendly syllabi may believe that their professor does not expect them
to be successful, which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. When
formal statements imbue a sense of mistrust, it follows that student
retention at the university will be negatively impacted (Collins 1997;
Tinto 1993).

Collins (1997), a first-generation college student, described a
different, albeit related purpose to the tone-setting aspect of a
syllabus. He emphasized the practical and ethical importance of writing
a syllabus that is inclusive and accessible to all students,
particularly to students from groups that have been historically
underrepresented in higher education. By making the implicit explicit
and communicating that we believe that students can and will succeed,
faculty begin to level the playing field and ensure that all students
have equal opportunities in the classroom. Many of the examples
described below accomplish this objective.


Structure
A good syllabus creates an effective structure for both faculty and
students, allowing all parties to recognize where they need to go and
what they need to do to get there. Dates for papers, examinations,
readings, and other assignments, as well as weights for these
assignments, help faculty stay on schedule throughout the semester,
while also helping students identify what they need to do to earn a
particular grade.

Students often depend on a syllabus to manage their time effectively.
Many students report feeling overextended between school, work, and
family demands, and they use a syllabus to determine how to allocate
their limited time.

Furthermore, students' allocation of time to a class often closely
matches perceived reinforcements for their time on task, with less time
given to a quiz than a test, more for a formal paper than a reaction
paper. Students who cannot predict or influence their professor's
expectations and behavior may give up and display typical signs of
learned helplessness. Similarly, when faculty shift deadlines
frequently, students may become frustrated by their inability to plan
writing and studying time. As Mann and his colleagues (1970, cited in
McKeachie 1994) conclude, what may initially have been a professor's
attempt to be responsive to class needs may ultimately undermine class
morale.

A good course and syllabus need not be rigid in providing this
structure, but should be flexibly responsive to student concerns and
external events, such as the Columbine massacre and the terrorist
attacks on New York City and Washington, DC. Responsiveness, however, is
not the same as an absence of structure (McKeachie 1994). Faculty can
provide structure for their students' experiences and be sensitive to individual
and group needs to know where they are and where they are going. We believe
an effective class often teaches process goals rather than only content, generally
building on these either within or across courses (Walvoord and Anderson 1998). We
believe that the strongest syllabi and courses have assignments that are clearly related
to process objectives and that clearly help students meet these goals.

Finally, although we have talked about the purpose of a syllabus from a
student's point of view, syllabi are probably equally important for
faculty, as they help us to develop and organize our vision for the
course (Appleby 1999). A well-designed syllabus is both a consequence
and a precursor of a strongly articulated teaching philosophy (Office of
Teaching Effectiveness and Faculty Development 1999).

Evidence
Whether or not we mean for it to serve this purpose, a syllabus often
serves as a contract between faculty and students. Brosman (1998) dates
the contractual aspect of the syllabus to the 1970s, when students first
began to challenge expectations that were not described in course
syllabi. Policies that are clearly outlined in a syllabus can help avert
lawsuits. Accordingly, some schools, such as Georgia Southern
University, make this contract explicit, and ask students to sign that
they read the syllabus and agree to its terms (M. Nielsen, personal
communication, September 19, 2001). When attempting to resolve disputes,
administrators often consult the syllabus to determine whether the
faculty member followed the rules that both professor and student
"agreed to" in the course (S. Johnson, personal communication, October
2, 2001).

In addition, a well-done syllabus effectively communicates the nature
and quality of a faculty member's teaching philosophy and abilities to
tenure and promotion committees or search committees at other
universities (Appleby 1999). Syllabi also serve a vital function in
accreditation efforts, where accrediting bodies look to syllabi to
ascertain what happens in specific courses and then look across syllabi
to gauge learning more broadly (such as within a specific discipline or
major). This function is an important one, as external bodies often must
assess teaching indirectly.

Contact Information
 Most schools require faculty to be available outside of class. As a
result, most syllabi, at a minimum, include office hours and the
location of the faculty office. In this electronic age, e-mail addresses
and Web pages--if the faculty member has and uses these--are becoming
standard fare. When faculty strongly prefer e-mail to phone calls,
sharing this information with students is useful. Syllabi for Web
courses should indicate when the faculty member is available for real
time online discussions.

Course Description
This section sometimes reiterates the catalog description, but more
often provides a thumbnail sketch of how a particular faculty member
idiosyncratically approaches a course. Sometimes this section includes
an institutional justification for the course (such as "meets the
university's writing requirement"). Quotations also can orient students
to a course and excite them about it (see Root 2001; Kuhlenschmidt
2000). Slattery (2003) uses each of these tactics in her "Techniques in
Interviewing and Casework" course when she follows opening quotes with:

   Your previous psychology classes have
   looked at the theory behind social problems
   and how to address them. This class is likely
   to be the most applied class, other than an
   internship, that you take in psychology.
   Rather than only talking about listening, we
   will practice it. Rather than only discussing a
   person's background (in theory), we will
   begin to assess it in the course of our interviews
   and write-up of our findings.

   This course will be especially useful for
   three kinds of students: (a) those who plan
   to go to graduate school in one of the helping
   fields and want a head start relative to
   their classmates; (b) those who do not plan
   to immediately go to graduate school and
   want some preparation for entry level
   human services jobs; and (c) those who
   plan to work outside of the helping fields,
   but know that listening skills are essential
   for their personal and professional success.

Course Goals
Having strong course goals is helpful for students; developing them can
strengthen a faculty member's teaching. Before sitting down to teach a
course, imagine overhearing graduating seniors discuss your course and
how they have changed after taking it (Appleby 2003; Gross 1993). How
might you meet these outcomes through your course goals? This section of
the syllabus clearly describes goals for students and, in doing so,
helps faculty identify their own goals for teaching.

Angelo and Cross's (1993) "Teaching Goals Inventory" is a useful
assessment of the wide range of teaching goals that can inform a single
course (such as develop analytical skills, develop an openness to new
ideas, and strengthen speaking skills). Root (2001) includes a
comprehensive set of objectives for his "Introduction to Psychology"
course and demonstrates how even "content-oriented" courses also teach
process skills. He suggests that students will gain various kinds of
knowledge (such as of philosophical questions, historical context,
terminology, theory, and methodology), and adds that they also will
develop stronger critical thinking skills and have fun.

We believe the strongest course goals use action verbs (evaluate,
analyze, create) rather than more passive and vague verbs (learn, recognize,
understand). Action verbs are especially important when a course has
assignments other than multiple choice examinations. The syllabus can
encourage students to approach the course and learning in specific ways
(Coffman 2003). In particular, by asking students to set goals for the
course based on their initial reading of the syllabus and by including
discussion or study questions in the syllabus, faculty members encourage
students to take ownership of their learning.

Ways to Meet Course Goals
This section of the syllabus describes faculty expectations, including
readings, assignments, and means used to assess student progress.
Although freshmen may not focus on this section, continuing students see
this information as important (Becker and Calhoon 1999), perhaps because
they recognize the variety of ways in which faculty assess learning.
Faculty should use course objectives to guide the development of
assignments that help students meet class goals. When assignments are
unrelated to course goals, consider whether the assignment is
superfluous or a signal of an unidentified goal. On the other hand, some
course goals may not have associated graded assignments (such as improve
personal well-being). When this happens, consider whether the goal is an
integral but unassessed part of the course or whether it should be
subsumed under another part of the syllabus, such as the description.

Not all faculty clearly describe their assignments in syllabi. In a
study of thirty-seven Augsburg College syllabi, Littlefield (1999a)
reported that only 50 percent described course projects, 25 percent
described papers, and 18 percent described tests. Of course, as the
syllabus is not the only way for faculty and students to communicate
with each other, it is possible that faculty shared this information in
other ways. However, as a syllabus is probably the handout most easily
retrieved by students, it should include at least a list of assignments
and due dates.

Grading
Littlefield (1999a) reported that most Augsburg College syllabi
described how final grades are weighted. Few, however, described the
grading criteria and rubrics used to guide the determination of those
grades. The more idiosyncratic the grading strategy of the professor, or
the more unusual the assignment, the more important the grading rubric.
Students writing their first paper for a professor often want to know
the relative importance of effectively summarizing the literature,
analyzing and critiquing it, creativity, and writing skill (Appleby
2001). Most students have had enough experience to know that faculty
differ in their relative emphasis on each of these criteria and that a
paper receiving a very positive grade in one course could receive a
significantly lower grade in a different course. Tata (1999) suggests
that providing and adhering to a grading rubric can prevent students
from perceiving grades as unfair.

Two related issues deserve consideration as far as grades: class
participation and group work. Students report considerable anxiety when
they are asked to do group work. Although there is substantial
ecological validity for learning how to work in a group (Astin 1985;
Walvoord and Anderson 1998), students often dislike this work,
especially when grades are heavily dependent on their groupmates'
output. Informing students early in the semester about what they must do
to earn a desired grade can decrease anxiety and increase class
cohesiveness.

Gurung (2002), for example, handles this dilemma effectively in his
"Culture, Development and Health class, both clarifying his expectations
and creating a rubric that does not penalize hard-working group members:

   Group members will all get a similar grade
   UNLESS there are major discrepancies in
   individual contributions as indicated by
   self-evaluations. Members in danger of getting
   a lower grade than the group due to
   social loafing or for other reasons will be
   notified in time [to increase their contributions]
   if possible. (3)

An increasing number of faculty include a means by which students may
track their grades electronically. Students seem to appreciate this
opportunity. As classroom technologies like Blackboard or other
Web-posted grading systems become more common, paper versions of grading
sheets will be less prevalent.

Schedule
Becker and Calhoon (1999) reported that schedule information was
important to students and used to guide preparation for exams. Omitting
this information on one's syllabus may have serious implications for
students' abilities to plan and learn during the semester, yet
Littlefield (1999a) reported that many faculty omitted project due dates
(42 percent) and exam dates (65 percent).

A schedule also should help students identify reading assignments, if
possible by content area rather than only by chapter number. Introducing
a subject area with an eye-grabbing phrase (such as "Making the most of
your undergraduate years") can orient students to a given topic and help
them remember an essential idea or even motivate them (cf. Lloyd 1998).
With textbooks rising in cost, students are finding other ways to complete reading
assignments, including reading texts with similar material or a previous
edition of a current text. Identifying the chapter with an eye-catching
phrase can help students using other texts stay on track.

When reading assignments are not in assigned texts, it is especially
useful to include a complete reference list. The text of one's syllabus
should indicate where these readings can be found (on reserve in the
library, purchased from the bookstore, on the Internet, in PDF files
linked to the Web syllabus, and so on). Even when the instructor has
made readings available in a convenient place, providing the complete
source information makes it easier for students who choose to look for
readings in a place more convenient for them. Of course, formatting this
reference list in discipline-specific format also serves as a model for
effective writing within the discipline.

Rationale
To encourage students to be passionate about a course and learning, tell
them why you find it exciting (Office of Teaching Effectiveness and
Faculty Development 1999). Tell them why you give assignments and why
they are important. Littlefield (1999a) reported that about 12 percent
of the Augsburg College syllabi she reviewed included the rationale for
assignments, 4 percent included the philosophy of the course and
assignments, and none related the course to the mission of the
department or college. The relative scarcity of rationales suggests that
many faculty do not consider their motivation for particular
assignments--or at least fail to communicate this. We believe that
providing the assignment's rationale is an opportunity to get students
and faculty working together. A clear rationale for assignments is also
an opportunity to educate students and make the implicit explicit
(Collins 1997).
Consider Littlefield's (1999b) rationale for group work:

   Cooperative learning ... is extremely effective
   in helping students be successful in
   college. This team-based approach assures
   active learning, and often allows for groups
   to work together to accomplish more than
   you could as an individual. In business and
   industry, teams are increasingly common;
   this class provides an opportunity to learn
   some team-related skills that will be useful
   to you in the workforce. (3)

Motivational Messages
Littlefield (1999a) reported that 38 percent of Augsburg College faculty
listed expectations of students, but only 5 percent identified what
students could expect of faculty. Many faculty listed their expectations
for attendance, due dates, and academic honesty. Few described the
consequences for violating these expectations.

Motivational messages can take either a positive or negative tone. In
general, although we want to set lofty, yet achievable goals for our
students, we should indicate that we expect that most students will meet
these goals.

   The texts for this class are only a beginning.
   It is hoped (indeed, expected) that
   you will be stimulated to go beyond these
   sources and to read in the primary literature
   that makes up the corpus of early psychological
   knowledge and to read in the historical
   research in psychology today. History
   is not dead subject matter to be gleaned
   from a textbook; it is a vital area of
   research, currently enjoying a great deal of
   activity. (Benjamin 2001, 2)

Legalistic statements about attendance and academic honesty are often
required by university handbooks and state laws and can easily undermine
student/faculty relationships. Nonetheless, with forethought, one can be
clear about the rules governing classroom behavior without being cold
and accusatory. Appleby (2003) reports that clearly outlining expected
and prohibited behaviors significantly decreases the frequency with
which students engage in distracting behaviors, such as arriving late to
class meetings.

University Support Services
First-year students often are not aware that university support services
exist, and thus may not access resources that could make the difference
between success and failure in a course or their academic careers
(Collins 1997). Freshmen are interested in this information and
preferentially focus on university-provided support services described
in syllabi (Becker and Calhoon 1999).

Students who read syllabi where faculty offered help were more likely to
say that they would be willing to use it (Perrine, Lisle, and Tucker 1995).
However, few Augsburg College syllabi mentioned professorial,
departmental, or university services (such as tutorial services,
counseling center, career services, and writing centers) that might help
students meet academic or personal goals throughout the semester
(Littlefield 1999a). At first blush, this may appear to be a trivial
issue. It is anything but--when we fail to educate students about
services available, we fail to level the playing field that privileges
traditional college students at the expense of other groups including
racial minorities, immigrants, first generation college students, and
students with learning disabilities or psychological issues that
interfere with learning (Collins 1997).

Appleby (2001) meets this goal in a somewhat different manner. He
includes feedback from previous students in his "Orientation to a Major
in Psychology" class in the syllabus (such as "Don't drop the class when
you hear about the workload--it's not as difficult as it sounds. Dr. A is very
willing to help his students").

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______________________________________

Jeanne M. Slattery is a professor of psychology at Clarion University in Clarion, Pennsylvania. Janet F. Carlson is a professor and the head of the Department of General Academics at Texas A&M University in Galveston.